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Sacred groves of India are forest fragments of varying sizes, which are communally protected, and which usually have a significant religious connotation for the protecting community. Hunting and logging are usually strictly prohibited within these patches.〔Gadgil, M. and Vartak, V.D. ; Sacred groves of India : A plea for continued conservation Journal of Bombay Natural History Society, 72 : 314-320, 1975〕 Other forms of forest usage like honey collection and deadwood collection are sometimes allowed on a sustainable basis. Sacred groves did not enjoy protection via federal legislation in India. Some NGOs work with local villagers to protect such groves. Traditionally, and in some cases even today, members of the community take turns to protect the grove.〔Sudha, P., Rekha, P. V., Gunaga, V. S., Patagar, S., Naik, M. B., Indu, K. M., and N. H Ravindranath, (Community Forest Management and Joint Forest Management: An Ecological, Economic and Institutional Assessment in Western Ghats, India ), Presented at "Crossing Boundaries", the seventh annual conference of the International Association for the Study of Common Property, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, June 10–14, 1998〕 However, the introduction of the protected area category community reserves under the Wild Life (Protection) Amendment Act, 2002 has introduced legislation for providing government protection to community held lands, which could include sacred groves. Indian sacred groves are sometimes associated with temples / monasteries / shrines or with burial grounds (which is the case in Shinto and Ryukyuan religion-based sacred groves respectively in Japan). Sacred groves may be loosely used to refer to other natural habitat protected on religious grounds, such as Alpine Meadows. Historical references to sacred groves can be obtained from ancient classics as far back as Kalidasa's Vikramuurvashiiya. ==Beliefs and practices== Typically, such groves are associated with the concept of a "presiding deity". While most of these sacred deities are associated with local Hindu gods, sacred groves of Islamic and Buddhist origins, and some based on smaller local religions and folk religions (like the folk deities ''ayyanar'' and ''amman'' ) are also known of. There are over 1000 deities associated with sacred groves in the states of Kerala and Karnataka alone. In Kodagu district in Karnataka from time immemorial the martial community of Kodavas had maintained over a 1000 Deva kadus dedicated to Aiyappa the forest god. The Hindu tradition considers forests (''Van''/ ''Ban'') to be of three types - ''Tapovan'', ''Mahavan'' and ''Sreevan''. ''Tapovan'' are forests associated with penance (''Tapas''), and are inhabited by saints and ''rishis''. ''Mahavan'' refers to the grand natural forests. ''Tapovan'' and ''Mahavan'' are considered to be a ''Raksha'' ("sanctuary") for flora and fauna as ordinary human beings are not allowed to enter these forests. ''Sreevan'', which means, "forests of prosperity", consists of dense forests and groves. From the former, people would collect dry wood, leaves, forest produce and a limited amount of timber, though natural ecosystem would not be unnecessarily disturbed. Groves were considered as spaces of forests from where harvesting could be done. Sometimes, specific trees like mango trees could be planted and nurtured here. Groves were associated with religious rites, festivals and recreation. Typical recreational activities associated with these groves included ''jhoola''/ ''jhoolan''.〔Ranchor Prime, Vedic Ecology: Practical Wisdom for Surviving the 21st Century, Mandala Publishing, Novato, CA, 2002〕 In the villages, ''Panchavati'', or a cluster of five trees that represented the forests, were maintained. These trees represented the five elements of Earth, Water, Fire, Air and Space.〔 Planting and nurturing of trees has been a highly evolved practice in ancient India.〔Vrukshayurveda, authored by Surapala, translated by Nalini Sadhale, Agri-History Bulletin No.1, Asian Agri-History Foundation, Secunderabad〕 ''Vrukshayurveda'', the science of plant life and also a 10th-century treatise of that title on the subject ascribed to Surapala, dealt with various species of trees and their growth. Verses 9-23 from this text indicate how mystical beliefs and conservation of ecology was inter-connected. :''A person is honored in Vaikuntha for as many thousand years as the days he resides in a house where tulasi is grown.'' :''And if one properly grows bilva, which pleases Lord Siva, in his family, the goddess of riches resides permanently passes on to the sons and grandsons'' :''He who plants even a single asvattha, wherever it may be, as per the prescribed mode, goes to the abode of Hari.'' :''He who has planted dhatri has performed several sacrifices. He has donated the earth. He would be considered a celebate forever.'' :''He who plant a couple of banyan trees as per the prescribed mode would go to the abode of Siva and many heavenly nymphs will attend upon him.'' :''After planting neem trees a person well-versed in dharma attains the abode of Sun. Indeed! He resides there for a long period.'' :''By planting four plaksa trees a person doubtlessly obtains the fruits of Rajasuya sacrifice.'' :''He who plants five or six mango trees attains the abode of Garuda and lives happily forever like gods.'' :''One should plant seven palasa trees or even one. One attains the abode of Brahma and enjoys the company of gods by doing so.'' :''He who himself plants eight udumbara trees or even prompts someone to plant them, rejoices in the lunar world'' :''He who has planted madhuka has propitiated Parvati, has become free from diseases, and has worshipped all deities.'' :''If one plants ksirini, dadimi, rambha, priyala, and panasa, one experiences no affliction for seven births.'' :''He who has knowingly or unknowingly planted ambu is respected as a recluse even while staying in the house.'' :''By planting all kinds of other trees, useful for fruits and flowers, a person gets a reward of thousand cows adorned with jewels.'' :''By planting one asvattha, one picumanda, one nyagrodha, ten tamarind trees, the group of three, viz., kapittha, bilva, and amalaka, and five mango trees, one never visits hell.''〔 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Sacred groves of India」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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